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Vermivora chrysoptera (Linnaeus, 1766)
Golden-winged Warbler
Federal Protection: No US federal protection
State Protection: Endangered
Global Rank: G4
State Rank: S1B
Element Locations Tracked in Biotics: Yes
SWAP 2015 Species of Greatest Conservation Need (SGCN): Yes
SWAP 2025 Species of Greatest Conservation Need (SGCN): Yes
2025 SGCN Priority Tier: High Conservation Concern
Element Occurrences (EOs) in Georgia: 3
Habitat Summary for element in Georgia: Regenerating clearcuts and burned areas; overgrown pastures
A small warbler about 12-13 cm (5 in) long with medium gray back, chest and belly, and white vent. The male has a thick wedge-shaped black stripe or patch that broadens as it runs from the base of the bill to the back of the head. It also has a black chin and throat. The black is replaced by gray on the female. Both sexes have a yellow forecrown and fairly large yellow wing panel on the upper wing near the shoulder; this yellow coloration is generally brighter on the male. The upper surface of the outer tail feathers is white in both sexes. Frequently hybridizes with blue-winged warbler (Vermivora cyanoptera) resulting in intermediate plumages.
The yellow-throated warbler (Setophaga dominica) could look somewhat similar at a distance, but it has a darker blue-gray back, bright yellow throat, white chest with grayish streaking on the flanks, white wingbars, and it lacks yellow on the top of the head. The yellow-rumped warbler (Setophaga coronata) could also appear somewhat similar to the golden-wing but has a darker gray to blue-gray back, white chest and belly with black streaking on the flanks, white wingbars, white throat, a large yellow patch on the flank at the base of the wing, a yellow rump, and no yellow on the upper surface of the wing. The only time the yellow-rumped warbler and golden-winged warbler might overlap is in late spring before the yellow-rumped warbler migrates north.
Nesting habitat for this warbler varies somewhat across its range, but generally includes areas with patches of herbs, shrubs, and scattered trees along forest edges. Populations in the Southern Appalachians historically inhabited naturally occurring higher-elevation open oak woodlands, open brushy areas created by beavers, and some mountain bogs. Today this species typically inhabits early successional habitats that include a combination of dense stands of seedling and sapling trees interspersed with relatively open patches of grass and weeds. Surrogate habitats such as regenerating clear-cuts, roadsides, and brushy abandoned pastures are the most common habitats used in the southern portion of its range. Most golden-winged warblers are found at elevations between 850 m and 1,200 m in the Southern Appalachians and primarily occupy regenerating clear-cuts that average about 12 years of age. Wintering habitats in the tropics tend to be semi-open woodlands, more sparsely stocked forests, and forest edges and gaps.
Adult moths and moth pupae and caterpillars, other winged insects, spiders.
The breeding season in Georgia begins in mid to late April. Males arrive 2-7 days before females and establish territories. Nest building starts a few days after the females arrive, usually in late April. Only the female builds the nest, which is placed on or near the ground in a clump of herbaceous vegetation, often near small woody stems. She constructs the nest in 1-3 days using tree leaves as the base and weaving coarse grasses and other plant fibers to form the loose outer cup. The inner cup is woven from fine grasses and other fine plant material. A clutch of 4-6 eggs is laid and incubated by the female alone for 10-12 days before hatching. Both parents feed the young in the nest and they fledge 9-10 days after hatching. Most young have fledged by the third week of May. Both adults and young have been observed near nest sites into late July, and they may remain in early successional habitat throughout the summer.
Point counts conducted in May in early successional habitats, including recently burned areas, clear-cuts, and similar sites, in the Blue Ridge Mountains. At larger sites it might be possible to run these counts along forest roads or transects. Spot mapping could be used to delineate male territories and get an estimate of the number of pairs using a site. Nesting success and productivity could be measured as well.
The golden-winged warbler breeds throughout the eastern half of the Midwest, southern portions of the Northeast, the western Mid-Atlantic, and down the Southern Appalachians to very northern Georgia. It also breeds in southern Ontario, Canada. Thomas Burleigh described this bird as ‘fairly common’ in six north Georgia counties in the early 1900s in his seminal book, Georgia Birds. However, golden-winged warblers have been documented at just a few sites in the Blue Ridge Mountains in Fannin and Union counties since 2004, and no nesting golden-winged warblers have been found in Georgia since 2015. Wintering sites occur throughout much of Central America and northwestern South America where suitable habitat exists.
Prior to European settlement, habitat was fairly common throughout the Southern Appalachians in the form of open oak woodlands created and maintained by frequent lightning-generated fires or by fires set by Native Americans. After colonization, settlers maintained areas as open oak woodlands, and golden-winged warblers were considered characteristic of this habitat. Logging of the Southern Appalachians in the early 20th century created an abundance of suitable early successional habitat for this bird and golden-winged warblers were probably common in recently cutover areas. Continued logging and severe wildfires following the demise of the American chestnut (Castanea dentata) probably sustained populations throughout the Southern Appalachians. Farm abandonment about that time also provided habitat at lower elevations. Despite intensive survey work from 2002-2004, only a few sites had been documented for this species in the state in recent decades and all of these are now unoccupied. Populations have declined throughout much of this bird's range, with a 2.3% annual decline in the eastern Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) region from 1966-2015.
| Threat 1 | Threat 2 | Threat 3 | |
|---|---|---|---|
| General Threat | Natural system modifications | Invasive & other problematic species, genes & diseases | Natural system modifications |
| Specific Threat | Fire & fire suppression | Problematic native species/diseases | Dams & water management/use |
The most recently documented sites were on the Chattahoochee National Forest, particularly Ledford Gap and Brawley Mountain in Fannin County and an area north of Suches in Union County. No birds have been detected nesting or on territory anywhere in Georgia since 2015.
Since the latter half of the 20th century the southern Appalachian population of the golden-winged warbler has shown significant declines and it is likely that the Georgia population has been extirpated. Nearly all suitable habitat in Georgia is owned by the U.S. Forest Service, and decades of fire suppression coupled with recent reductions in timber harvest on these lands has eliminated virtually all remaining habitat. Most nesting sites in Georgia are at lower elevations, and golden-winged warblers nesting at these sites are vulnerable to hybridization and competitive exclusion by blue-winged warblers which nest at these lower elevations. A female Lawrence's warbler (golden-winged warbler x blue-winged warbler hybrid) was seen at least three times at Brawley Mountain in 2002. This bird was carrying food on one date indicating that it was likely nesting at this site. While it is unlikely any nesting golden-winged warblers remain in Georgia, any remaining populations would likely be found in habitats that are still being maintained in suitable conditions such as brushy roadsides, large powerline rights-of-way, or brushy wetlands. Timber harvest and prescribed fire at appropriate elevations provide the best tools to effectively manage habitat for the golden-winged warbler at a landscape level.
Brewster, W. 1886. An ornithological reconnaissance in western North Carolina. Auk 3:94–112, 173–179.
Buckner, E. R., and N. L. Turrill. 1998. Fire and southern Appalachian ecosystem management. Pp. 329–349 in J. Peine, ed., Ecosystem Management for Sustainability: Principles and Practices Illustrated by a Regional Biosphere Reserve Cooperative. CRC Press, London, England.
Burleigh, T. D. 1958. Georgia Birds. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.
Confer, J. L. 1992. Golden-winged Warbler (Vermivora chrysoptera). In A. Poole, P. Stettenheim, and F. Gill, eds., The Birds of North America, no. 20. Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, PA and American Ornithologists’ Union, Washington, DC.
Confer, J. L., and K. Knapp. 1977. Hybridization and interactions between Blue-winged and Golden-winged warblers. Kingbird 27:181–190.
Confer, J. L., and K. Knapp. 1981. Golden-winged Warblers and Blue-winged Warblers: The relative success of a habitat specialist and a generalist. Auk 98:108–114.
Delcourt, H. R., and P. A. Delcourt. 1997. Pre-Columbian Native American use of fire on southern Appalachian landscapes. Conservation Biology 11:1010–1014.
Gill, F. B. 1980. Historical aspects of hybridization between Blue-winged and Golden-winged warblers. Auk 97:1–18.
Klaus, N. A. 2004. Status of the Golden-winged Warbler in North Georgia, and a nesting record of the Lawrence’s Warbler. Oriole 69:1–7.
Klaus, N. A. 2010. Golden-winged Warbler (Vermivora chrysoptera) Pp.322-323 in T. M. Schneider, G. Beaton, T. S. Keyes, and N. A. Klaus, eds. The Breeding Bird Atlas of Georgia. University of Georgia Press, Athens.
Klaus, N. A., and D. A. Buehler. 2001. Golden-winged Warbler breeding habitat characteristics and nest success in clearcuts in the southern Appalachian Mountains. Wilson Bulletin 113:297–301.
Sauer, J. R., D. K. Niven, J. E. Hines, D. J. Ziolkowski, Jr., K. L. Pardieck, J. E. Fallon, and W. A. Link. 2017. The North American Breeding Bird Survey, Results and Analysis 1966-2015. Version 2.07.2017 U.S.G.S. Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, Laurel, MD.
Will, T. C. 1986. The behavioral ecology of species replacement: Blue-winged and Golden-winged warblers in Michigan. Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
Nathan A. Klaus and Todd M. Schneider
N. Klaus, 2010: Breeding Bird Atlas species account
T. Schneider, July 2010: modified and edited text
K. Owers, July 2010: updated status and ranks, added picture
T. Schneider, May 2019; added photo 2
N. Klaus and T. Schneider, October 2019; modified and edited text
