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Schwalbea americana L.
Chaffseed
Federal Protection: Listed Endangered
State Protection: Endangered
Global Rank: G2
State Rank: S2
Element Locations Tracked in Biotics: Yes
SWAP 2015 Species of Greatest Conservation Need (SGCN): Yes
SWAP 2025 Species of Greatest Conservation Need (SGCN): Yes
2025 SGCN Priority Tier: Highest Conservation Concern
Element Occurrences (EOs) in Georgia: 21
Habitat Summary for element in Georgia: Open pinelands, as in well-managed, somewhat moist longleaf pine-wiregrass forests seeps
Perennial herb with erect, very hairy stems up to 28 inches (70 cm) tall. Its leaves are 1.2 - 2 inches (3 - 5 cm) long, alternate, lance-shaped, largest at the base of the stem, gradually decreasing in size upwards, entire, without leaf stalks, overlapping in a spiral up the stem, covered with velvety hairs. The flower spike is held at the top of the stem. Flowers are about 1 inch (2.5 cm) long, tubular, two-lipped, cream-colored or pale yellow streaked with reddish-purple, especially near the lips; the 5 sepals are green with 10 reddish lines. Fruits are capsules, about 0.4 inch (1 cm) long, splitting into 4 sections when mature to release many tiny winged seeds.
None.
Schwalbea americana is the only species in its genus.
Frequently burned Longleaf Pine sandhills, savannas, and flatwoods; moist, grassy ecotones around natural depression ponds in these habitats.
Schwalbea americana is a long-lived perennial herb that reproduces sexually by seed. It flowers in response to fire and also in response to management activities, such as mowing and raking, that mimic fire by removing old stems and competing vegetation. Chaffseed plants may remain dormant during years of low rainfall and re-sprout once conditions improve.
Its flowers are pollinated by bumblebees but will also produce fruits and viable seeds following self-pollination. A high percentage of its seeds are viable. The larvae of Buckeye Butterfly (Junonia coenia) have been observed eating the stems, leaves, and flowers of Chaffseed, sometimes destroying all aboveground vegetation.
Chaffseed is a hemiparasite – although it produces carbohydrates by photosynthesis, it extracts water and minerals, particularly nitrogen, from the roots of host plants by means of root-like connections called haustoria. Host plants are diverse and include shrubs such as Gallberry (Ilex glabra) and Huckleberry (Gaylussacia dumosa), grasses such as Panic Grass (Panicum spp.), and composites such as Grass-leaved Holdenaster (Pityopsis graminifolia), Deertongue (Carphephorus odoratissimus), and Scale-leaf Aster (Symphyotrichum adnatum).
Surveys are best conducted during flowering, usually April–June, depending on timing of recent fire. Without fire, plants remain short and do not flower. Brown, dead stems with old fruits are conspicuous for about a year after flowering.
Georgia, North Carolina, and South Carolina; historically, plants were found from Massachusetts south to Florida and west to Texas, but most of these populations have been destroyed.
Ditching, draining, and filling wetlands such as savannas and depression ponds. Conversion of habitat to pine plantations, pastures, and developments. Fire suppression. Rooting by feral hogs.
| Threat 1 | Threat 2 | Threat 3 | |
|---|---|---|---|
| General Threat | Natural system modifications | Natural system modifications | Climate change & severe weather |
| Specific Threat | None | None | None |
Schwalbea americana is ranked S1 by the Georgia Department of Natural Resources, indicating that it is critically imperiled in the state. It is listed as Endangered by both the State of Georgia and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Twenty populations have been documented in Georgia, 14 of these since 2000. Only four of these populations are protected on conservation land.
Apply prescribed fire every 2 - 3 years. Protect flatwoods and savannas from conversion to pine plantations, pastures, or development. Avoid mechanical clearing, soil disturbance, and cutting fire lanes through habitat. Avoid placing game food plots near plants. Eradicate feral hogs.
Chafin, L.G. 2007. Field guide to the rare plants of Georgia. State Botanical Garden of Georgia and University of Georgia Press, Athens.
Determann, R., L.K. Kirkman, and H. Nourse. 1997. Plant conservation by propagation: the case of Macranthera and Schwalbea. Tipularia, Journal of the Georgia Botanical Society 12: 2-12.
Helton, R.C., L.K. Kirkman, and L.J. Musselman. 2000. Host preference of the federally endangered hemiparasite Schwalbea americana L. (Scrophulariaceae). Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society 127(4): 300-306. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3088648?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents
Kirkman, L.K., M.B. Drew, and D. Edwards. 1998. Effects of experimental fire regimes on the population dynamics of Schwalbea americana L. Plant Ecology 137: 115-137. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1008085229548
NatureServe. 2020. Schwalbea americana species account. NatureServe Explorer. NatureServe, Arlington, Virginia. https://explorer.natureserve.org/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.144235/Schwalbea_americana
Norden, A.H. 2002. Species biology and life history of the federally endangered Schwalbea americana L. (Scrophulariaceae). M.S. Thesis, University of Georgia, Athens. http://getd.libs.uga.edu/pdfs/norden_amy_h_200212_ms.pdf
Norden, A.H. and L.K. Kirkman. 2004. Herbivory of the federally endangered Schwalbea americana. Castanea 69(1): 67-69. https://bioone.org/journals/castanea/volume-69/issue-1/0008-7475(2004)069%3C0067:SN%3E2.0.CO;2/Herbivory-of-the-Federally-Endangered-Schwalbea-americana/10.2179/0008-7475(2004)069%3C0067:SN%3E2.0.CO;2.full
Norden, A.H. and L.K. Kirkman. 2004. Factors controlling the fire-induced flowering response of the federally endangered Schwalbea americana L. (Scrophulariaceae). Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society 131(1): 16-22. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4126924?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents
Norden, A.H. and L.K. Kirkman. 2004. Persistence and prolonged winter dormancy of the federally endangered Schwalbea americana L. (Scrophulariaceae) following experimental management techniques. Natural Areas Journal 24(2): 129-134. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/288704111_Persistence_and_prolonged_winter_dormancy_of_the_federally_endangered_ Schwalbea_americana_L_Scrophulariaceae_following_experimental_management_techniques
Patrick, T.S., J.R. Allison, and G.A. Krakow. 1995. Protected plants of Georgia. Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Natural Heritage Program, Social Circle.
Sorrie, B.A. 2019. Schwalbea americana species account. Flora of North America, vol. 17. Oxford Press, New York. http://beta.floranorthamerica.org/Schwalbea
USFWS. 2019. American Chaffseed (Schwalbea americana) species profile and related documents. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. https://ecos.fws.gov/ecp0/profile/speciesProfile?sId=1286.
Weakley, A.S. 2015. Flora of the southern and mid-Atlantic States. University of North Carolina Herbarium, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. http://www.herbarium.unc.edu/flora.htm
Linda G. Chafin
L.Chafin, Aug. 2008: original account
D.Weiler, Jan. 2010: added pictures
L. Chafin, May 2020: updated original account.
